ANODE-FREE SOLID-STATE BATTERY CELLS WITH ANTI-DENDRITE AND INTERFACE ADHESION CONTROLLED FUNCTIONAL LAYERS

Provided herein are apparatus, systems, and methods of powering electric vehicles. A battery pack can be disposed in an electric vehicle to power the electric vehicle. The apparatus can include a battery cell. A battery cell can have a housing that defines a cavity. The battery cell can have a solid electrolyte. The electrolyte can be arranged within the cavity. The battery cell can have a cathode disposed within the cavity along a first side of the electrolyte. The battery cell can have a functional layer disposed within the cavity along a second side of the electrolyte. A first side of the functional layer can be in contact with a second side of the electrolyte. The functional layer can form an alloy with lithium material received via the electrolyte. The battery cell can have a scaffold layer disposed within the cavity along a second side of the functional layer.